Lecture No. 3

Objectives
Understand the financial statements of manufacturing concerns

Purpose of preparing financial statements

Financial statements are prepared to demonstrate financial results to the users of financial information.  These are the reports, which are prepared by the accounting department and are used by the different people inclusive of the management. According to IASB framework:      “Financial statements exhibit its users the financial position, financial performance, and cash inflow and outflow analysis of an entity.”

Components of Financial Statements

According to IASB framework there are five components of financial statements: Balance Sheet:                                           Statement of financial position at a given point in time. Income Statement:                                      Incomes minus expenses for a given time period ending at a specified date. Statement of changes in Equity:                 Also known as Statement of Retained Earnings or Equity Statement. Cash Flows Statement:                               Summarizes inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents for a given time period ending at a specified date. Notes (to the accounts):                              Includes accounting policies, disclosures and other explanatory information. It is not possible for all the business entities to prepare all of the components of the financial statements, it depends upon the size, nature and statutory requirements of each of the entities that whether all components are to be prepared or not. For example a small business entity (like a washer man) does not need to prepare statement of changes in equity or notes to the accounts as the size of information is very little and not complex

Financial statements prepared by the Cost Accountant

Cost accounting department prepares reports that help the accounting department in preparing final accounts, these include; ·         Cost of goods manufactured statement ·         Cost of goods sold statement Both of the statements represent production cost function or the function of expenses that are incurred to make the goods or services available for sale. It depends upon the form of the business entity whether what should be disclosed in these statements and what should be the extent of the details to be given into these statements

Forms of business entities
Manufacturing Entities      Manufacturing entities purchase materials and components and convert them into finished goods. Costing department of these entities works very much efficiently, a complete cost accounting system is followed in manufacturing concerns in which procedures of cost accumulation, methods of product costing, process of calculating per unit cost and determining the cost of inventories are defined.                Trading Entities      Trading entities purchase and then sell tangible products without changing their basic form. Costing department of these entities is not involved in that much minute calculations and procedures. It simply has to keep records of the cost of goods purchased and cost of inventory.      Servicing Entities      Servicing entities provide services or intangible products to their customers. Costing department of these entities is also concerned with calculation of the cost of service provided. Inventory of service is also determined in this type of concerns.

Lecture No. 2

OBJECTIVES
To understand the basic terminologies used in cost and management accounting

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES

Cost Unit It is a unit of a product or service in relation to which the cost is ascertained, i.e. it is the unit of the out put or product of the business. In simple words the unit for which cost of producing the units is identified /allocated. Example Ball point for a Ball point manufacturing entity Bottle for Beverage producing entity Fan for a Fan manufacturing entity Cost Center Cost centre is a location where costs are incurred and may or may not be attributed to cost units. Examples       Workshop in a manufacturing concern       Auto service department       Electrical service department       Packaging department       Janitorial service department Revenue Centre It is part of the entity that earns sales revenue. Its manager is responsible for the revenue earned not for the cost of operations. Examples       Sales department       Factory outlet Profit Centre Profit centre is a section of an organization that is responsible for producing profit. Examples       A branch       A division Investment Centre An investment centre is a segment or a profit centre where the manager has significant degree of control over his/her division’s investment policies. Examples       A branch       A division Relevant Cost Relevant cost is which changes with a change in decision. These are future costs that effect the current management decision. Examples       Variable cost       Fixed cost which changes with in an alternatives Opportunity cost Irrelevant Cost Irrelevant costs are those costs that would not affect the current management decision. Example A building purchased in last year, its cost is irrelevant to affect management decisions.  Sunk Cost Sunk cost is the cost expended in the past that cannot be retrieved on product or service.  Example The entity purchase stationary in bulk last moth. This expense has been incurred and hence will not be relevant to the management decisions to be taken subsequent to the purchase. Opportunity Cost Opportunity cost is the value of a benefit sacrificed in favor of an alternative.  Example An investor invests in stock exchange he foregoes the opportunity to invest further in his hotel.   The profit which the investor will be getting from the hotel is opportunity cost. Product Cost Product cost is a cost that is incurred in producing goods and services. This cost becomes part of inventory. Example        Direct material, direct labor and factory overhead. Period Cost The cost is not related to production and is matched against on a time period basis. This cost is considered to be expired during the accounting period and is charged to the profit & loss account. Example       Selling and administrative expenses Historical Cost It is the cost which is incurred at the time of entering into the transaction. This cost is verifiable through invoices/agreements. Historical cost is an actual cost that is borne at the time of purchase. Example A building purchased for Rs 400,000, has market value of Rs. 1,000,000. Its historical cost is Rs. 400,000.  Standard Cost Standard cost is a Predetermine cost of the units. Example Standard cost for a unit of product ‘A’ is set at Rs 30. It is compared with actual cost incurred for control purposes. Implicit Cost Implicit cost imposed on a firm includes cost when it foregoes an alternative action but doesn't make a physical payment. Such costs are related to forgone benefits of any single transaction, and occur when a firm: Example Uses its own capital or Uses its owner's time and/or financial resources Explicit Cost Explicit cost is the cost that is subject to actual payment or will be paid for in future. Example       Wage       Rent       Materials Differential Cost or Incremental cost   It is the difference of the costs of two or more alternatives. Example       Difference between costs of raw material of two categories or quality.  Costing: The measurement of cost of a product or service is called costing; however, it is not a recommended terminology. Cost Accounting: It is the establishment of budgets, standard cost and actual costs of operations, processes, activities or products and the analysis of variances, profitability or social use of funds. It involves a careful evaluation of the resources used within the business. The techniques employed are designed to provide financial information about the performance of a business and possibly the direction which future operations should take. Prime Cost: The total costs which can be directly identified with a job, a product or service is known as Prime cost. Thus prime cost = direct materials + direct labor + other direct expenses. Conversion Cost. This is the total cost of converting the raw materials into finished products. The total of direct labor other direct expenses and factory overhead cost is known as conversion cost Cost Accumulation Cost accumulations are the various ways in which the entries in a set of cost accounts (costs incurred) may be aggregated to provide different perspectives on the information. Methods of cost accumulation Process costing It is a method of cost accounting applied to production carried out by a series of operational stages or processes. Job order costing Generally, it is the allocation of all time, material and expenses to an individual project or job.

Lecture No. 1

OBJECTIVE
Objective of cost accounting is computation of cost per unit, whereas the objective of management accounting is to provide information to the management for decision making purposes.

INTRODUCTION

Cost Accounting Cost Accounting is an expanded phase of financial accounting which provides management promptly with the cost of producing and/or selling each product and rendering a particular service.             Management Accounting Management accounting is application of professional knowledge and skill in the preparation and presentation of financial information in such a way as to assist management in decision making and in the planning and control of operations of the entity Objectives Objective of cost accounting is computation of cost per unit, whereas the objective of management accounting is to provide information to the management for decision making purposes. Users Users of cost & management accounting are the decision makers and the managers of the entity/organization for which all this exercise is undertaken. Uses of Cost and Management Accounting It determines total cost of production and cost of sales It determines appropriate selling price It discloses the profitable products, areas and activity/capacity levels It is used to decide whether to manufacture or purchase for outside It helps in planning and controlling the cost of production

ELEMENTS OF COST

Any product that is manufactured is the result of consumption of some resources. The management, for its planning and controlling functions, must know the cost of using these resources. The constituent elements of cost are broadly classified into three distinct elements:

1        Direct Material Cost

2        Direct Labor Cost

3        Other Production Cost

• Direct Cost
• Indirect Cost

  CLASSIFICATION OF COST

  
  
  Elements of cost (Direct Material, Direct Labor, Other Production costs) can be classified as direct cost or indirect cost.
  
  
  Direct Cost
  A direct cost is a cost that can be traced in full to the product or service for which cost is being determined.
  Costs that can be economically identified with a specific saleable product or service (cost unit).
  a)      Direct material costs are the costs of materials that are known to have been used in producing and selling a product or rendering a service.
  b)      Direct labor costs are the specific costs of the workforce used to produce a product or rendering a service.
  c)      Other direct production costs are those expenses that have been incurred in full as a direct consequence of producing a product, or rendering a service.
  
  
  Indirect Cost/Overhead Cost
  An indirect cost or overhead cost is a cost that is incurred in the course of producing product or rendering service, but which cannot be traced in the product or service in full.
  Expenditure incurred on labor, material or other services which cannot be economically identified with a specific cost product or service (cost unit).
  Examples include:
              Wages of supervisor, cleaning material, workshop insurance.
  
  

  Material Cost	Labor Cost	Other Production Cost	Total Production Cost
  Direct	Direct	Direct	Price Cost
  Indirect	Indirect	Indirect	Factory Overhead Cost

  
  
  
  
  1. Prime Cost    
    Direct Material
  +Direct Labor
  +Other direct production cost
     Prime cost                          .      
  
  
  2. Total Production Cost
    Prime Cost
  +Factory overhead cost
    Total production cost      .
  
  
  3. Conversion Cost
    Direct labor cost
  +Factory overhead cost
    Conversion cost        .

  COST BEHAVIOR
  Cost behavior is the way in which total production cost is affected by fluctuations in the activity (production) level. Activity level The activity level refers to the amount of work done, or the number of events that have occurred. Depending on circumstances, the level of activity may refer to the volume of production in a period, the number of items sold, the value of items sold, the number of invoices issued, the number of invoices received, the number or units of electricity consumed, the labor turnover etc. etc. Basic principle The basic principle of cost behavior is that as the level of activity rises, costs will usually raise. For example; it will cost more to produce 500 units of output than it will cost to produce 100 units; it will usually cost more to travel 10 km than to travel 2 km. Although the principle is based on the common sense, but the cost accountant has to determine, for each cost elements, whether which cost rises by how much by the change in activity level. Division of cost by its behavior Basically the cost of production has two behaviors: Fixed Cost Variable Cost Fixed Cost It is a cost which tends to be constant by increases or decreases in the activity level. Graph of Fixed Cost     This graph shows that the cost remains fixed regard less of the volume of output. Examples include: Salary of the production manager (monthly/annual) Insurance premium of factory work shop Depreciation on straight line method Variable Costs A variable cost is a cost which tends to very directly with the change in activity level. The variable cost per unit is the same amount for each unit produced whereas total variable cost increases as volume of output increases. Graph of Variable Cost Rs.   Volume of output   This graph shows a proportionate increase in the cost by the increase in the activity level. Examples include: Cost of raw-material consumed Direct labor cost Selling commission Further division of cost behavior Step fixed cost Semi variable cost Step fixed cost A step fixed cost is the cost which is constant for a specific range of activity and rises to a new constant level once the range exceeds. The range over which the fixed cost remains constant is known as the relevant range. For example; the depreciation of a machine may be fixed if production remains below 100 number of units per month, but if the production exceeds 100 number of units, a second machine may now be required, and the cost of depreciation would go up a step. Other examples include: a.       Rent of workshop (in case of increase in the production one needs to rent one more workshop) b.      Salary of supervisor (increase in output will be supervised by increased number of supervisors)                                                 Graph of Step fixed Cost Rs.                                                                                                                             This graph shows a stepwise increase in the total cost. Relevant range in this graph is of 100 numbers of units. Semi Variable Cost It is also known as mixed cost. It is the cost which is part fixed and par variable. It is in fact the mixture of both behaviors. Examples include: Utility bills – there is a fixed line rent plus charges for units consumed. Salesman’s salary – there is a fixed monthly salary plus commission per units sold.             The graph of semi variable cost is as follow: Rs. Cost                              100      200       300       400      500                            Output This graph shows a fixed cost of Rs. 2,000 and there after the cost is variable. COST BEHAVIOR PER UNIT OF PRODUCTION Cost per unit behaves differently than the total cost of production. Following tables show the difference in behavior. Increasing Production Volume Situation Decreasing Production Volume Situation Per Unit Total Fixed Cost Increase Constant Variable Cost Constant Decrease Total Cost Increase Decrease Increase or decrease in production volume causes no change to the variable cost per unit it remains constant, assuming there is not rebate in case of bulk purchase and the labor receives constant rate despite change in production volume. Whereas, increase in production volume causes a decrease in fixed cost per unit and in the same way a decrease in production volume causes an increase in fixed cost per unit. Following example helps understanding this concept. Total fixed cost                                   = Rs. 4,000 Per unit variable cost                           = Rs. 3 Cost per unit at different activity levels 1000, 2000, 4000, and 5000 units 1000 units 2000 units 4000 units 5000 units Rs. Per Unit Total Rs. Rs. Per Unit Total Rs. Rs. Per Unit Total Rs. Rs. Per Unit Total Rs. Fixed Cost 4 4,000 2 4,000 1 4,000 0.8 4,000 Variable Cost 3 3,000 3 6,000 3 1,200 3 15,000 Total Cost 7 7,000 5 10,000 4 16,000 3.8 19,000

Lecture No. 1 of Financial Management

: INTRODUCTION TO FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Learning Objectives
Understand the concept of FM and different concepts of a financial business environment. Understand the different definitions of Financial management The basic structure of the organization How we look at balance sheet from FM perspective what is internal or external environment of Financial markets Kinds of financial markets

INTRODUCTION TO FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
FM is the management of financial resources – how to best find and use investments and financing opportunities in an ever-changing and increasingly complex environment.

Why should CS majors study FM

First of all, financial management is a core life skill; almost every one needs to understand some concepts of finance to manage his/her business & personal finances. It is generally and quite rightfully said, “Money makes the world go round”. Finance is like a life-blood for a company. Even the best of the companies and CEOs go out of the business because of poor financial management policies. Management Information Systems (MIS) and Information Technology (IT) are just a part of the overall corporate strategy which runs on finances, the major resource. So the computer sciences professionals need to have an understanding of the financial concepts to understand and contribute to the overall corporate strategy. Financial Engineering is an upcoming field that requires people with CS, math/science, and finance background. Financial engineering is the application of engineering methods to finance. One important area of study is the design, analysis, and construction of financial contracts to meet the needs of enterprises. This field is experiencing an increased demand for professionals, especially those who are trained in both the underlying mathematics/computer technologies and finance.

Definitions

Finance Finance is the science of managing financial resources in an optimal pattern i.e. the best use of available financial sources. MGT201 (Financial Management) Finance consists of three interrelated areas:1) Money & Capital markets, which deals with securities markets & financial institutions. 2) Investments, which focuses on the decisions of both individual and institutional investors as they choose assets for their investment portfolios. 3) Financial Management, or business finance which involves the actual management of firms.

Major Areas & Concepts of Financial Management

Following are some of the important areas and concepts of financial management, which would be discussed in detail in the lectures to come. Analysis of Financial Statements: Analysis of financial statement is one of the most common techniques of financial analysis, in which the financial performance and financial health of a company are analyzed based on its past performance. The following financial statements are used in the analysis process. • Profit & Loss Statement or Income Statement o Balance Sheet o Statement of Shareholders’ equity o Statement of Cash Flows Investment Decisions & Capital Budgeting: Capital budgeting is a term strictly related to investment in fixed assets; here, the term capital refers to the fixed assets that are used in production, while budget is a plan which details projected cash inflows and outflows over some future period. The following concepts and techniques are employed while analyzing investment decisions. o Interest rate formulas o Time Value of Money o Discounted Cash Flows o Net Present Value o Internal Rate of Return Risk & Return: Investors, individual or institutional, invest their money with the expectations of earning a return on their investment. How the risks and returns are related and how do investors make a choice of their portfolios is important for investment decision making. Following concepts and theories would be discussed while discussing the risk-return choices of the investor: o Uncertainty o Risk o Portfolio Theory o Capital Asset Pricing Model Corporate Financing & Capital Structure: When a firm plans to expand, it needs capital or funds. Acquisition of funds is considered to be a primary responsibility of a finance department in an organization. Financial experts attempt to find a combination of debt and equity that could increase the overall value of the company, i.e., they try to find the optimal capital structure. The following concepts would be used to understand how an optimal capital structure could be attained. o Cost of Capital o Leverage o Dividend Policy o Debt Instruments Valuation: Asset or company valuation is important not only for financial managers, but also for creditors and investors. It is important to know the value of the company or its assets to make important financing and investment choices. Different valuation techniques and factors that influence the value of a company or its financial instruments would be discussed in this section. o Share o Bond o Option o Corporate Working Capital & Inventory Management: Working capital and inventory management pertains to the effective management of current assets. As we will see, an optimal and effective utilization of working capital and inventory increases the operating efficiency of the firm. International Finance & Foreign Exchange: With the increasing importance of international trade and global markets, the role of international finance has increased manifold. In a global environment, the finance managers have more choices pertaining to investing and financing than ever before. However, it is important to understand the implications of working in a global environment, since fluctuations in the currency rates can convert a good financing or investment decision into a bad one. This section of the course would discuss the international financial environment and the financial implications of working in a global environment.

Organizational Structure

Business Legal Entities
Sole Proprietorship: It is an unincorporated business owned by one individual. Going into a business as a sole proprietor is simple – one merely has to begin business operations. Proprietorship consists of 80%of the total number of businesses worldwide. Partnership:A partnership exists whenever two or more persons associate to conduct a non-corporate business. It could be registered or unregistered. Corporation:A corporation is a limited company and a separate legal entity registered by the government. It is separate & distinct from its owners & managers. It Can be Private Limited (Pvt. Ltd.) or Public Limited (which may be listed on Stock Exchange). The businesses in the form of corporations control 80% of global sales of products and services. S-Type Corporation: S- Type corporations are Limited Liability Corporations without double taxation. In a regular corporation, the company itself is taxed on business profits. In addition, the owners pay individual income tax on money that they draw from the corporation as salaries, bonuses, or dividends. In contrast, in an S corporation, all business profits "pass through" to the owners, who report them on their personal tax returns (as in sole proprietorships, partnerships, and Limited Liability Companies). The S corporation itself does not pay any income tax, although a co-owned S corporation must file an informational tax return like a partnership or Limited Liability Companies – to tell the tax authorities what each shareholder's portion of the corporate income is.

Balance Sheet – An FM Perspective

Internal and External Business Environment

Internal Business Environment:             Internal environment of business normally consists of the following.                                              i.        Finance                                              ii.       Marketing                                             iii.       Human Resources                                             iv.       Operations (Production, Manufacturing)                                             v.        Technology                                             vi.        Other Functions (Logistics, Communications) External Business Environment:             The following business environment factors outside an organization have a profound effect on the functions and operations of an organization.                                              i.    Customers                                              ii.   Suppliers                                              iii.  Competitors                                              iv.  Government/Legal Agencies & Regulations                                              v.   Macro Economy/Markets:                                              vi.   Technological Revolution

Financial Markets
Capital Markets:   These are the markets for the long term debt & corporate stocks.  Stock Exchange:A stock exchange is a place where the listed shares, Term finance certificates (TFC) and national investment trust units (NIT) are exchanged and traded between buyers and sellers.  Long term bonds: Long term government & corporate bonds are also traded in capital markets. Money Markets: Money market generally is a market where there is buying and selling of short  term liquid debt instruments. (Short term means one year or less). Liquid means something which is easily en-cashable; an instrument that can be easily exchanged for cash. Following financial instruments are traded in money markets. Short term Bonds o         Government of Pakistan:  Federal Investment Bonds (FIB), Treasury-Bills (T-Bills) o         Private Sector: Corporate Bonds, Debentures Call Money, Inter-bank short-term and overnight lending & borrowing  Loans, Leases, Insurance policies, Certificate of Deposits (CD’s)  Badlah (money lending against shares), Road-side money lenders  Real Assets or Physical Asset Markets: Following are the active markets of real and physical assets in Pakistan o         Cotton Exchange, Gold Market, Kapra Market o         Property (land, house, apartment, warehouse) Computer hardware, Used Cars, Wheat, Sugar, Vegetables, etc