Learning Objectives: After going through this lecture, you would be able to have a better understanding of the
following concepts.
Analysis of Financial Statements
Key Financial Ratios
Limitation of Financial Statements Analysis
Market value added & Economic value added.
You have studied in previous lecture
• Objective of Economics:
The objective of economics is profit maximization, however, for whom the
profit is to be maximized and for what duration may vary.
• Objective of Financial Accounting (FA):
The objective of financial accounting is to record accurate, timely, consistent,
and generalized collection of financial data, consolidating the information and
reporting it to the management for decision-making. Nevertheless, the decision-
makers use financial management techniques for a useful interpretation of the
consolidated financial data.
• Objective of Financial Management (FM):
The objective of financial management is to maximize the wealth of the
shareholders/owners. One way of increasing shareholders’ wealth is by
maximizing the stock price. In financial management when we talk about the
profit maximization, we actually imply profit maximization for the shareholders
of the company. We can simply measure it from the share price of the company
in the market.
Another way is to find the best investment and financing opportunities in order
to maximize the value of the company. As we will see in the later lectures, the
two ways are closely related to each other. Financial statements are used to assess
the financial position as well as performance of the company, so that the
financing and investing decisions could be taken accordingly.
Analysis of Financial Statements:
A company’s financial statements need to be studied for signs of financial
strengths and weaknesses and then compared to (or benchmarked against) the
industry. Before getting into the details of the financial management techniques,
we would briefly revise some of the accounting concepts, which are going to
help us in comprehending those analysis techniques.
There are four basic financial statements that are prepared by the financial
accountants for the use of the managers, creditors and investors of the company. These
statements are
a. Balance Sheet
b. P/L or Income Statement
c. Cash Flow Statement
d. Statement of Retained Earnings (or Shareholders’ Equity Statement)
The concepts that we are going to discuss here in reviewing financial accounting concepts
are Fundamental Accounting Equation and Double Entry Principle.
• Assets +Expense = Liabilities + Shareholders’ Equity + Revenue
(Note: Expense & Revenue are Temporary P/L accounts – the others are Permanent
Balance Sheet Accounts)
• Left Hand Items increase when debited. Right Hand items increase when credited.
• For every journal entry, the Sum of Debits = the Sum of Credits
Balance Sheet:
The following facts about balance sheet are also going to help us in
understanding the financial statements analysis process.
– A balance sheet is a ‘static snapshot’ at one point in time (therefore the
consolidated data available is vulnerable to inventory and cash swings, i.e., if
the balance sheet of a firm is showing low inventory and high cash position
at the year ending when the balance sheet is prepared, the company may buy
excessive inventory against cash the very next day. The balance sheet
prepared a day earlier would not report the new transaction and the latest
financial position of the company would not be known to the analyst, unless
the company updates him on that.)
– Balance sheet items or accounts are ‘permanent accounts’ that continue to
accumulate from one accounting cycle to the next.
– Balance sheet items are recorded on historical cost basis, i.e., the balance
sheet neglects any increase in value of assets resulting from inflation and
reports assets and liabilities at their book value. It is a big limitation for
financial analysts, since a useful analysis could only be made by considering
the assets and liabilities at their market value rather than book value.
Nevertheless, there are some approaches by which we can solve this
problem. Constant rupee approach is one such remedy.
– Constant Rupee Approach: In constant rupee approach, two balance sheets
of the same company for different times are compared at a specific time and
inflationary adjustments are made.
• Assets (Left Hand Side):
Having revised certain concepts and limitations of financial accounting process
and financial statements, we would now have a brief overview of the items that appear
on the left-hand side of the balance sheet, known as assets.
– Assets are economic and business resources that are used in generating
revenue for the organization: They can be tangible (inventory) or intangible
(patent, brand value, license). Some assets are classified as current (cash,
accounts receivable) and others are fixed (machinery, land, and building).
There are also long-term assets (property, loans given) and contingent assets,
the value of which can only be assessed in future (legal claim pending,
option).
– Current Assets = Cash + Marketable Securities + Accounts Receivable +
Pre-Paid Expenses + Inventory
– The accounts receivable aging schedule is a listing of the customers making
up total accounts receivable balance. Most businesses prepare an accounts
receivable aging schedule at the end of each month. Analyzing your accounts
receivable aging schedule may help you identify potential cash flow
problems.
– Inventory value (at any instant in time) is a very controversial figure which
depends on inventory valuation methodology (i.e. FIFO, LIFO, Average
Cost) and Depreciation Method (i.e. Straight Line, Double Declining,
Accelerated). Companies have the flexibility that they can use one
methodology for preparing the financial statements & the different
methodology for tax purposes.
• Liabilities (Right Hand Side):
The right hand side of the balance sheet represents liabilities.
– Liabilities are sources which are use to acquire the resources or liabilities are
obligations of two types:
1) Obligations to outside creditors and
2) Obligations to shareholders known as Equity.
– Liabilities can be short term debts, long term debt, equity, retained earnings,
contingent, unrealized gain on holding of marketable securities
MGT201 (Financial Management)
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© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan
– Current Liabilities = Account Payables + Short Term Loans + Accrued
Expenses
– Net Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities
– Total Equity = Common Equity + Paid In Capital + Retained Earnings
(Retained Earnings is NOT cash always)
– Total Equity represents the residual excess value of Assets over Liabilities:
Assets – Liabilities = Equity = Net Worth
– Only cash account represents real cash which can be used to pay your bills!!
Profit & Loss account or Income Statement:
– An income statement is a “flow statement” over a period of time matching
the operating cycle of the business, which reports the income of the firm.
– Generally, Revenue – Expense = Income
– Right hand side receipts (revenues) are added. Left hand side payments
(expenses) are subtracted.
– P/L Items or Accounts are ‘temporary’ accounts that need to be closed at
the end of the accounting cycle.
– Sales revenue – Cost of Goods Sold = Gross Profit (Revenue)
– Cost of Goods Sold is a very controversial figure that varies depending on
Inventory Valuation Method (i.e., FIFO, LIFO, Average Cost) and
Depreciation Method (Straight Line, Double Declining, Accelerated).
Depreciation is treated as an expense (although it is non-cash)
– Gross Revenue – Admin & Operating Expenses = Operating Revenue
– Operating Revenue – Other Expenses + Other Revenue = EBIT
– EBIT – Financial Charges & Interest = EBT Note: Leasing Treatment
– EBT – Tax = Net Income
– Net Income – Dividends = Retained Earnings
– Net Income is NOT cash (it can’t pay for bills)
P/L Statement of Company XYZ
Year Ending June 30th
2002)
(‘000 Rs.) (‘000 Rs) (‘000 Rs)
Net Sales 1000
Cost of Goods Sold (500)
Gross Profit 500
Administration Expenses (200)
Depreciation Expense (0)
Operating Profit 300
Other Expenses (180)
Other Income (interest) (0) (180)
MGT201 (Financial Management)
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EBIT 120
Tax (20)
Net Income 100
Cash Flow Statement:
A cash flow statement shows the cash position of the firm and the way cash has
been acquired or utilized in an accounting period.
A cash flow statement separates the activities of the firm into three categories,
which are operating activities, investing activities and financing activities.
• Operating Cash Flow Statement can be obtained by using two approaches:
1) Direct
2) Indirect.
A cash flow statement can be derived from P/L or Income
Statement and two consecutive year Balance Sheets.
• A cash flow statement is not prepared on accrual basis but rather on cash
basis: Actual cash receipts and cash payments.
• The net income is obtained from the Income Statement of a period of time
matching the operating cycle of the business. Generally:
Revenue – Expense = Income
• In order to arrive as the cash flows resulting from operating activities
Increases in current assets are cash payments (-), i.e., cash outflow
Increases in current liabilities are cash receipts (+), i.e., cash inflow
Right Hand Side Receipts are added.
Left Hand Side payments are subtracted
Statement of Retained Earnings or Shareholders’ Equity Statement
Total Equity = Common Par Stock Issued + Paid In Capital + Retained Earnings
(Retained Earnings is the cumulative income that is not given out as Dividend – it is NOT
cash)
XYZ
Cash Flow Statement
(June 30th
2001 – June 30th
2002)
(‘000 Rs) (‘000 Rs) (‘000 Rs)
Net Income 400
Add Depreciation Expense 100
Subtract Increase in Current Assets:
Increase in Cash (400)
Increase in Inventory (700)
(1100)
Add Increase in Current Liabilities:
Increase in A/c Payable 500
Cash Flow from Operations (100)
Cash Flow from Investments 0
Cash Flow from Financing 500
Net Cash Flow from All Activities 400
Note 1: Indirect Cash Flow Approach using Income Statement and two
consecutive Balance Sheets
Note 2: Final Net Cash Flow from All Activities should match the difference
in the difference in the closing balances in the Balance Sheets from
June 30th 2001 and June 30th 2002
Note 3: Investments include all cash sale and purchases of non-current
assets and marketable securities MGT201 (Financial Management)
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© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan
Note 4: Financing includes all cash changes in loans, leasing, and equity etc.
Some Financial Ratios:
LIQUIDITY & SOLVENCY RATIOS:
Current Ratio: Current ratio is a ratio between current assets and liabilities, which
tells that for every dollar in current liabilities, how many current assets do the company
possess. Since the current liabilities are usually paid out of current assets, it makes sense to
compare the two figures to assess the liquidity of the firm. Liquidity implies the ease with
which the current liabilities can be paid off. Generally, the higher the ratio, the better it is
considered, but too high a ratio may imply less productive use of current assets. A ratio of
two to one (2:1) is considered ideal.
= Current Assets / Current Liabilities
Quick/Acid Test ratio: Quick ratio is relatively a stringent measure of liquidity. The
ratio is obtained by subtracting inventory from current assets and dividing the result by
current liabilities. Inventory is the least liquid of all current assets. By subtracting inventory
from current assets, we are actually comparing more liquid assets with current liabilities. This
ratio not only helps in gauging the solvency of the company, it may also show if the
inventories are piling up. A desirable quick ratio can range from (0.8:1) to (1.5:1) depending
on the nature of the business.
= (Current Assets – Inventory) / Current Liabilities
Average Collection Period: Also known as Days Sales Outstanding, average
collection period shows in how many days the Accounts receivables of the company are
converted into cash. Most of the companies sell most of their products/services on credit
basis, hence it is critical for the company to know in how much time these receivables could
be converted to cash in order to ensure liquidity at all times. Average collection period is
calculated using the following formula
= Average Accounts Receivable /(Annual Sales/360)
Note: Average collection period is usually expressed in terms of days. If you find a
decimalized answer, you should round it off to the next integer.
PROFITABILITY RATIOS:
The profitability ratios show the combine effects of liquidity, asset management,
and debt management on operating result.
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Profit Margin (on sales): One of the most commonly used ratios is profit margin on
sales. This ratio tells the percentage of profit for every dollar of revenue earned. This ratio is
usually expressed in terms of percentage and the general rule is , the higher the ratio, the
better it is. Most of the companies compare this ratio to the previous years’ ratios to assess if
the company is better off.
= [Net Income / Sales] X 100
Return on Assets: Return on assets is another profitability ratio, which shows the
profitability of the company against each dollar invested in total assets. We can obtain this
figure by simply by dividing the net profit with total assets. Since the assets are economic
resources that are used to earn profit, it is logical to assess if the assets have been used
efficiently enough to generate profits. This ratio is also expressed in percentage terms.
= [Net Income / Total Assets] X 100
Return on equity: Return on equity is of special interest to the shareholders,
since equity represents the owners’ share in the business. Return on equity can be obtained
by dividing the net income with the total equity. This ratio shows that for each dollar in
equity how much profit is generated by the company.
= [Net Income/Common Equity]
ASSET MANAGEMENT RATIOS
These measures show how effectively the firm has been managing its assets.
Inventory Turnover:
Inventory turnover shows the number of times the inventories are replenished within
one accounting cycle. The ratio can be obtained by dividing the sales by inventory. While the
quick ratio measures the liquidity and points out the inventory piling problem, the inventory
turnover confirms whether or not the major portion of the current assets of the firm are tied
up in inventory. This ratio is also used in measuring the operating cycle and cash cycle of the
firm. A higher turnover is desirable as it reflects the liquidity of the inventories.
= Sales / inventories
Total Assets Turnover: An effective use of total assets held by a company ensures
greater revenue to the firm. In order to measure how effectively a company has used its total
assets to generate revenues, we compute the total assets turnover ratios, dividing the sales by
total assets.
= Sales / Total Assets
An increasing ratio over the years may show that with an addition of assets, the company has
been able to generate incremental sales in greater proportion.
DEBT (OR CAPITAL STRUCTURE) RATIOS: MGT201 (Financial Management)
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© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan
Debt-Assets: A commonly used ratio to measure the capital structure of the firm is
debt to assets ratio. Capital structure refers to the financing mix (proportion of debt and
equity) of a firm. The greater the proportion of debt in the financing mix, the less willing
creditors, and investors would be to provide more finances to the company. In Pakistan, the
debt to assets ratio is prescribed in prudential regulations by the State Bank of Pakistan as a
guideline for the banks (creditors). A ratio greater than 0.66 to 1 is considered alarming for
the providers of funds.
= Total Debt / Total Assets
Debt-Equity: Another commonly used ratio, debt to equity, explicitly shows the
proportion to debt to equity. A ratio of 60 to 40 is used for new projects, i.e., for a project it
is permitted to raise its finances 60 percent from the debt and 40 percent from equity. Debt
to equity is computed by the following formula.
= Total Debt / Total Equity
Times-Interest-Earned: Times-interest-earned reflects the ability of a company to
pay its financial charges (interest). This ratio is obtained by dividing the operating profit by
the interest charges. Conceptually, the interest charges are to be paid from the earnings
before interest and taxes. A ratio of 4 to 1 shows that the company covers the interest
charges 4 times, which is generally considered satisfactory by the management, however, a
ratio higher than that, may be more desirable. A high time-interest-earned ratio is a good
sign, especially for the creditors.
= EBIT / Interest Charges
Market Value Ratios:
Market value ratios relate the firm’s stock price to its earnings &
book value per share. These ratios give management an indication of what equity
investors think of the company’s past performance & future prospects
Price Earning Ratio:
It shows how much investors are willing to pay per rupee of reported
profits. This ratio reflects the optimism, or lack thereof, investors have about the future
performance of the company.
= Market Price per share / *Earnings per share
Market /Book Ratio:
Market to book ratio gives an indication how equity investors regard
the company’s value. This ratio is also used in case of mergers, acquisition or in the event of
bankruptcy of the firm.
= Market Price per share / Book Value per share MGT201 (Financial Management)
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*Earning Per Share (EPS):
= Net Income / Average Number of Common Shares Outstanding
Ratios help us to compare different businesses in the same industry and of a similar
size.
Limitations of Financial Statement Analysis:
Despite the fact that ratios are a useful analysis tool, there are certain
limitations, which are important for an analyst to understand before applying this tool, in
order to make his analysis more meaningful.
• FSA is generally an outdated (because of Historical Cost Basis) post-mortem of what
has already happened. It is simply a common starting point for comparison. Use
Constant Rupee / Dollar analysis to account for inflation.
• FSA is limited by the fact that financial statements are “window dressed” by creative
accountants. Window dressing refers to the understatement or overstatement of
financial facts.
• Different companies use different accounting standards for Inventory, Depreciation,
etc. therefore comparing their financial ratios can be misleading
• FSA just presents a few static snapshots of a business’ financial health but not the
complete moving picture.
• It’s difficult to say based on Financial Ratios whether a company is healthy or not
because that depends on the size and nature of the business.
Difference in Focus:
Financial Statements are prepared by financial accountants with a certain perspective,
however the financial managers—the end users of these financial statements, have a
different focus to draw meaningful conclusions out of these statements. These differences
are listed below
• Financial Accounting (FA) Focus:
• Use Historical Value (assets are booked at original purchase price)
• Follow Accrual Principle (calculate Net Income based on accrued expense
and accrued revenue)
• How to most logically, clearly, and completely represent the financial data.
• Financial Management (FM) Focus:
MGT201 (Financial Management)
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© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan
• Use Market Value (assets are valued at current market price)
• Follow Incremental Cash Flows because an Asset’s (and a Company’s)
Value is determined by the cash flows that it generates.
• How to pick the best assets and liabilities portfolios in order to maximize
shareholder wealth.
FM Measures of Financial Health:
The financial management measures that are used for assessing the financial health of a
company primarily focus on the basic objective of financial management, i.e., to increase the
wealth of the shareholders. Given below are the two important measures of financial health.
• M.V.A (Market Value Added):
Market Value Added is a measure of wealth added to the amount of equity capital
provided by the shareholders. It can be determined by the following equation
MVA (Rupees) = Market Value of Equity – Book Value of Equity Capital
Following are the characteristics of MVA
• It is a cumulative measure, i.e., it is measured from the inception of
the company to date. Market Value is based on market price of
shares.
• It shows how much more (or less) value the management has
succeeded in adding (or reducing) to the company in the eyes of the
general public / market.
• It is used for incentive compensation packages for CEO’s and higher
level management.
• E.V.A (Economic Value Added):
Economic Value Added, on the other hand, focuses on the managerial effectiveness in a
given year. It can be obtained by subtracting the cost of total capital from the operating
profits of a company
• EVA (Rupees) = EBIT (or Operating Profit) – Cost of Total Capital
EVA has the following characteristics
• It is measured for any one year.
• It is relatively difficult to calculate because Operating Profit depends
on Depreciation Method, Inventory Valuation, and Leasing
Treatment, etc. Also, a combined Cost of Total Capital (Debt and
Equity) is difficult to compute.
following concepts.
Analysis of Financial Statements
Key Financial Ratios
Limitation of Financial Statements Analysis
Market value added & Economic value added.
You have studied in previous lecture
• Objective of Economics:
The objective of economics is profit maximization, however, for whom the
profit is to be maximized and for what duration may vary.
• Objective of Financial Accounting (FA):
The objective of financial accounting is to record accurate, timely, consistent,
and generalized collection of financial data, consolidating the information and
reporting it to the management for decision-making. Nevertheless, the decision-
makers use financial management techniques for a useful interpretation of the
consolidated financial data.
• Objective of Financial Management (FM):
The objective of financial management is to maximize the wealth of the
shareholders/owners. One way of increasing shareholders’ wealth is by
maximizing the stock price. In financial management when we talk about the
profit maximization, we actually imply profit maximization for the shareholders
of the company. We can simply measure it from the share price of the company
in the market.
Another way is to find the best investment and financing opportunities in order
to maximize the value of the company. As we will see in the later lectures, the
two ways are closely related to each other. Financial statements are used to assess
the financial position as well as performance of the company, so that the
financing and investing decisions could be taken accordingly.
Analysis of Financial Statements:
A company’s financial statements need to be studied for signs of financial
strengths and weaknesses and then compared to (or benchmarked against) the
industry. Before getting into the details of the financial management techniques,
we would briefly revise some of the accounting concepts, which are going to
help us in comprehending those analysis techniques.
There are four basic financial statements that are prepared by the financial
accountants for the use of the managers, creditors and investors of the company. These
statements are
a. Balance Sheet
b. P/L or Income Statement
c. Cash Flow Statement
d. Statement of Retained Earnings (or Shareholders’ Equity Statement)
The concepts that we are going to discuss here in reviewing financial accounting concepts
are Fundamental Accounting Equation and Double Entry Principle.
• Assets +Expense = Liabilities + Shareholders’ Equity + Revenue
(Note: Expense & Revenue are Temporary P/L accounts – the others are Permanent
Balance Sheet Accounts)
• Left Hand Items increase when debited. Right Hand items increase when credited.
• For every journal entry, the Sum of Debits = the Sum of Credits
Balance Sheet:
The following facts about balance sheet are also going to help us in
understanding the financial statements analysis process.
– A balance sheet is a ‘static snapshot’ at one point in time (therefore the
consolidated data available is vulnerable to inventory and cash swings, i.e., if
the balance sheet of a firm is showing low inventory and high cash position
at the year ending when the balance sheet is prepared, the company may buy
excessive inventory against cash the very next day. The balance sheet
prepared a day earlier would not report the new transaction and the latest
financial position of the company would not be known to the analyst, unless
the company updates him on that.)
– Balance sheet items or accounts are ‘permanent accounts’ that continue to
accumulate from one accounting cycle to the next.
– Balance sheet items are recorded on historical cost basis, i.e., the balance
sheet neglects any increase in value of assets resulting from inflation and
reports assets and liabilities at their book value. It is a big limitation for
financial analysts, since a useful analysis could only be made by considering
the assets and liabilities at their market value rather than book value.
Nevertheless, there are some approaches by which we can solve this
problem. Constant rupee approach is one such remedy.
– Constant Rupee Approach: In constant rupee approach, two balance sheets
of the same company for different times are compared at a specific time and
inflationary adjustments are made.
• Assets (Left Hand Side):
Having revised certain concepts and limitations of financial accounting process
and financial statements, we would now have a brief overview of the items that appear
on the left-hand side of the balance sheet, known as assets.
– Assets are economic and business resources that are used in generating
revenue for the organization: They can be tangible (inventory) or intangible
(patent, brand value, license). Some assets are classified as current (cash,
accounts receivable) and others are fixed (machinery, land, and building).
There are also long-term assets (property, loans given) and contingent assets,
the value of which can only be assessed in future (legal claim pending,
option).
– Current Assets = Cash + Marketable Securities + Accounts Receivable +
Pre-Paid Expenses + Inventory
– The accounts receivable aging schedule is a listing of the customers making
up total accounts receivable balance. Most businesses prepare an accounts
receivable aging schedule at the end of each month. Analyzing your accounts
receivable aging schedule may help you identify potential cash flow
problems.
– Inventory value (at any instant in time) is a very controversial figure which
depends on inventory valuation methodology (i.e. FIFO, LIFO, Average
Cost) and Depreciation Method (i.e. Straight Line, Double Declining,
Accelerated). Companies have the flexibility that they can use one
methodology for preparing the financial statements & the different
methodology for tax purposes.
• Liabilities (Right Hand Side):
The right hand side of the balance sheet represents liabilities.
– Liabilities are sources which are use to acquire the resources or liabilities are
obligations of two types:
1) Obligations to outside creditors and
2) Obligations to shareholders known as Equity.
– Liabilities can be short term debts, long term debt, equity, retained earnings,
contingent, unrealized gain on holding of marketable securities
MGT201 (Financial Management)
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© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan
– Current Liabilities = Account Payables + Short Term Loans + Accrued
Expenses
– Net Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities
– Total Equity = Common Equity + Paid In Capital + Retained Earnings
(Retained Earnings is NOT cash always)
– Total Equity represents the residual excess value of Assets over Liabilities:
Assets – Liabilities = Equity = Net Worth
– Only cash account represents real cash which can be used to pay your bills!!
Profit & Loss account or Income Statement:
– An income statement is a “flow statement” over a period of time matching
the operating cycle of the business, which reports the income of the firm.
– Generally, Revenue – Expense = Income
– Right hand side receipts (revenues) are added. Left hand side payments
(expenses) are subtracted.
– P/L Items or Accounts are ‘temporary’ accounts that need to be closed at
the end of the accounting cycle.
– Sales revenue – Cost of Goods Sold = Gross Profit (Revenue)
– Cost of Goods Sold is a very controversial figure that varies depending on
Inventory Valuation Method (i.e., FIFO, LIFO, Average Cost) and
Depreciation Method (Straight Line, Double Declining, Accelerated).
Depreciation is treated as an expense (although it is non-cash)
– Gross Revenue – Admin & Operating Expenses = Operating Revenue
– Operating Revenue – Other Expenses + Other Revenue = EBIT
– EBIT – Financial Charges & Interest = EBT Note: Leasing Treatment
– EBT – Tax = Net Income
– Net Income – Dividends = Retained Earnings
– Net Income is NOT cash (it can’t pay for bills)
P/L Statement of Company XYZ
Year Ending June 30th
2002)
(‘000 Rs.) (‘000 Rs) (‘000 Rs)
Net Sales 1000
Cost of Goods Sold (500)
Gross Profit 500
Administration Expenses (200)
Depreciation Expense (0)
Operating Profit 300
Other Expenses (180)
Other Income (interest) (0) (180)
MGT201 (Financial Management)
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© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan
EBIT 120
Tax (20)
Net Income 100
Cash Flow Statement:
A cash flow statement shows the cash position of the firm and the way cash has
been acquired or utilized in an accounting period.
A cash flow statement separates the activities of the firm into three categories,
which are operating activities, investing activities and financing activities.
• Operating Cash Flow Statement can be obtained by using two approaches:
1) Direct
2) Indirect.
A cash flow statement can be derived from P/L or Income
Statement and two consecutive year Balance Sheets.
• A cash flow statement is not prepared on accrual basis but rather on cash
basis: Actual cash receipts and cash payments.
• The net income is obtained from the Income Statement of a period of time
matching the operating cycle of the business. Generally:
Revenue – Expense = Income
• In order to arrive as the cash flows resulting from operating activities
Increases in current assets are cash payments (-), i.e., cash outflow
Increases in current liabilities are cash receipts (+), i.e., cash inflow
Right Hand Side Receipts are added.
Left Hand Side payments are subtracted
Statement of Retained Earnings or Shareholders’ Equity Statement
Total Equity = Common Par Stock Issued + Paid In Capital + Retained Earnings
(Retained Earnings is the cumulative income that is not given out as Dividend – it is NOT
cash)
XYZ
Cash Flow Statement
(June 30th
2001 – June 30th
2002)
(‘000 Rs) (‘000 Rs) (‘000 Rs)
Net Income 400
Add Depreciation Expense 100
Subtract Increase in Current Assets:
Increase in Cash (400)
Increase in Inventory (700)
(1100)
Add Increase in Current Liabilities:
Increase in A/c Payable 500
Cash Flow from Operations (100)
Cash Flow from Investments 0
Cash Flow from Financing 500
Net Cash Flow from All Activities 400
Note 1: Indirect Cash Flow Approach using Income Statement and two
consecutive Balance Sheets
Note 2: Final Net Cash Flow from All Activities should match the difference
in the difference in the closing balances in the Balance Sheets from
June 30th 2001 and June 30th 2002
Note 3: Investments include all cash sale and purchases of non-current
assets and marketable securities MGT201 (Financial Management)
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© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan
Note 4: Financing includes all cash changes in loans, leasing, and equity etc.
Some Financial Ratios:
LIQUIDITY & SOLVENCY RATIOS:
Current Ratio: Current ratio is a ratio between current assets and liabilities, which
tells that for every dollar in current liabilities, how many current assets do the company
possess. Since the current liabilities are usually paid out of current assets, it makes sense to
compare the two figures to assess the liquidity of the firm. Liquidity implies the ease with
which the current liabilities can be paid off. Generally, the higher the ratio, the better it is
considered, but too high a ratio may imply less productive use of current assets. A ratio of
two to one (2:1) is considered ideal.
= Current Assets / Current Liabilities
Quick/Acid Test ratio: Quick ratio is relatively a stringent measure of liquidity. The
ratio is obtained by subtracting inventory from current assets and dividing the result by
current liabilities. Inventory is the least liquid of all current assets. By subtracting inventory
from current assets, we are actually comparing more liquid assets with current liabilities. This
ratio not only helps in gauging the solvency of the company, it may also show if the
inventories are piling up. A desirable quick ratio can range from (0.8:1) to (1.5:1) depending
on the nature of the business.
= (Current Assets – Inventory) / Current Liabilities
Average Collection Period: Also known as Days Sales Outstanding, average
collection period shows in how many days the Accounts receivables of the company are
converted into cash. Most of the companies sell most of their products/services on credit
basis, hence it is critical for the company to know in how much time these receivables could
be converted to cash in order to ensure liquidity at all times. Average collection period is
calculated using the following formula
= Average Accounts Receivable /(Annual Sales/360)
Note: Average collection period is usually expressed in terms of days. If you find a
decimalized answer, you should round it off to the next integer.
PROFITABILITY RATIOS:
The profitability ratios show the combine effects of liquidity, asset management,
and debt management on operating result.
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Profit Margin (on sales): One of the most commonly used ratios is profit margin on
sales. This ratio tells the percentage of profit for every dollar of revenue earned. This ratio is
usually expressed in terms of percentage and the general rule is , the higher the ratio, the
better it is. Most of the companies compare this ratio to the previous years’ ratios to assess if
the company is better off.
= [Net Income / Sales] X 100
Return on Assets: Return on assets is another profitability ratio, which shows the
profitability of the company against each dollar invested in total assets. We can obtain this
figure by simply by dividing the net profit with total assets. Since the assets are economic
resources that are used to earn profit, it is logical to assess if the assets have been used
efficiently enough to generate profits. This ratio is also expressed in percentage terms.
= [Net Income / Total Assets] X 100
Return on equity: Return on equity is of special interest to the shareholders,
since equity represents the owners’ share in the business. Return on equity can be obtained
by dividing the net income with the total equity. This ratio shows that for each dollar in
equity how much profit is generated by the company.
= [Net Income/Common Equity]
ASSET MANAGEMENT RATIOS
These measures show how effectively the firm has been managing its assets.
Inventory Turnover:
Inventory turnover shows the number of times the inventories are replenished within
one accounting cycle. The ratio can be obtained by dividing the sales by inventory. While the
quick ratio measures the liquidity and points out the inventory piling problem, the inventory
turnover confirms whether or not the major portion of the current assets of the firm are tied
up in inventory. This ratio is also used in measuring the operating cycle and cash cycle of the
firm. A higher turnover is desirable as it reflects the liquidity of the inventories.
= Sales / inventories
Total Assets Turnover: An effective use of total assets held by a company ensures
greater revenue to the firm. In order to measure how effectively a company has used its total
assets to generate revenues, we compute the total assets turnover ratios, dividing the sales by
total assets.
= Sales / Total Assets
An increasing ratio over the years may show that with an addition of assets, the company has
been able to generate incremental sales in greater proportion.
DEBT (OR CAPITAL STRUCTURE) RATIOS: MGT201 (Financial Management)
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Debt-Assets: A commonly used ratio to measure the capital structure of the firm is
debt to assets ratio. Capital structure refers to the financing mix (proportion of debt and
equity) of a firm. The greater the proportion of debt in the financing mix, the less willing
creditors, and investors would be to provide more finances to the company. In Pakistan, the
debt to assets ratio is prescribed in prudential regulations by the State Bank of Pakistan as a
guideline for the banks (creditors). A ratio greater than 0.66 to 1 is considered alarming for
the providers of funds.
= Total Debt / Total Assets
Debt-Equity: Another commonly used ratio, debt to equity, explicitly shows the
proportion to debt to equity. A ratio of 60 to 40 is used for new projects, i.e., for a project it
is permitted to raise its finances 60 percent from the debt and 40 percent from equity. Debt
to equity is computed by the following formula.
= Total Debt / Total Equity
Times-Interest-Earned: Times-interest-earned reflects the ability of a company to
pay its financial charges (interest). This ratio is obtained by dividing the operating profit by
the interest charges. Conceptually, the interest charges are to be paid from the earnings
before interest and taxes. A ratio of 4 to 1 shows that the company covers the interest
charges 4 times, which is generally considered satisfactory by the management, however, a
ratio higher than that, may be more desirable. A high time-interest-earned ratio is a good
sign, especially for the creditors.
= EBIT / Interest Charges
Market Value Ratios:
Market value ratios relate the firm’s stock price to its earnings &
book value per share. These ratios give management an indication of what equity
investors think of the company’s past performance & future prospects
Price Earning Ratio:
It shows how much investors are willing to pay per rupee of reported
profits. This ratio reflects the optimism, or lack thereof, investors have about the future
performance of the company.
= Market Price per share / *Earnings per share
Market /Book Ratio:
Market to book ratio gives an indication how equity investors regard
the company’s value. This ratio is also used in case of mergers, acquisition or in the event of
bankruptcy of the firm.
= Market Price per share / Book Value per share MGT201 (Financial Management)
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*Earning Per Share (EPS):
= Net Income / Average Number of Common Shares Outstanding
Ratios help us to compare different businesses in the same industry and of a similar
size.
Limitations of Financial Statement Analysis:
Despite the fact that ratios are a useful analysis tool, there are certain
limitations, which are important for an analyst to understand before applying this tool, in
order to make his analysis more meaningful.
• FSA is generally an outdated (because of Historical Cost Basis) post-mortem of what
has already happened. It is simply a common starting point for comparison. Use
Constant Rupee / Dollar analysis to account for inflation.
• FSA is limited by the fact that financial statements are “window dressed” by creative
accountants. Window dressing refers to the understatement or overstatement of
financial facts.
• Different companies use different accounting standards for Inventory, Depreciation,
etc. therefore comparing their financial ratios can be misleading
• FSA just presents a few static snapshots of a business’ financial health but not the
complete moving picture.
• It’s difficult to say based on Financial Ratios whether a company is healthy or not
because that depends on the size and nature of the business.
Difference in Focus:
Financial Statements are prepared by financial accountants with a certain perspective,
however the financial managers—the end users of these financial statements, have a
different focus to draw meaningful conclusions out of these statements. These differences
are listed below
• Financial Accounting (FA) Focus:
• Use Historical Value (assets are booked at original purchase price)
• Follow Accrual Principle (calculate Net Income based on accrued expense
and accrued revenue)
• How to most logically, clearly, and completely represent the financial data.
• Financial Management (FM) Focus:
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• Use Market Value (assets are valued at current market price)
• Follow Incremental Cash Flows because an Asset’s (and a Company’s)
Value is determined by the cash flows that it generates.
• How to pick the best assets and liabilities portfolios in order to maximize
shareholder wealth.
FM Measures of Financial Health:
The financial management measures that are used for assessing the financial health of a
company primarily focus on the basic objective of financial management, i.e., to increase the
wealth of the shareholders. Given below are the two important measures of financial health.
• M.V.A (Market Value Added):
Market Value Added is a measure of wealth added to the amount of equity capital
provided by the shareholders. It can be determined by the following equation
MVA (Rupees) = Market Value of Equity – Book Value of Equity Capital
Following are the characteristics of MVA
• It is a cumulative measure, i.e., it is measured from the inception of
the company to date. Market Value is based on market price of
shares.
• It shows how much more (or less) value the management has
succeeded in adding (or reducing) to the company in the eyes of the
general public / market.
• It is used for incentive compensation packages for CEO’s and higher
level management.
• E.V.A (Economic Value Added):
Economic Value Added, on the other hand, focuses on the managerial effectiveness in a
given year. It can be obtained by subtracting the cost of total capital from the operating
profits of a company
• EVA (Rupees) = EBIT (or Operating Profit) – Cost of Total Capital
EVA has the following characteristics
• It is measured for any one year.
• It is relatively difficult to calculate because Operating Profit depends
on Depreciation Method, Inventory Valuation, and Leasing
Treatment, etc. Also, a combined Cost of Total Capital (Debt and
Equity) is difficult to compute.
